Figures based on Association
Do you want to understand Figures of Speech like Metonymy, Synecdoche, Hypallage, Personification, Apostrophe, Antonomasia, Euphemism, Irony and Allusion in English Literature? If you want to do better in UPSC, UGC-NET, Teaching Exams, then this information is precious for you.
In this post, you will not only find simple definitions of these ornaments, but will also get to know the real examples from English literature, which will be very helpful in both your Writing Skills and Competitive Exam Preparation. Read the post completely and take your content writing and exam preparation to a new height!
✅ (i) Metonymy
Definition:When something or person's name is taken in the name of something related to it, it is called metonymy. That is, a word is spoken by not taking a direct name, which is related to that thing.
Suppose someone says - "The pen is mightier than the sword."
Here 'Pen' means writer or written, and 'sword' means strength or military power. It does not speak directly, but the name of the thing relates to them.
Examples from English literature:
Example from Edward Bulwer-Lytton's play "Richelieu":
"The pen is mightier than the sword."
Here the "Pen" shows the power of the author and the "sword" shows physical strength.
✅ (ii) Synecdoche
Definition: When the part of something is used for the whole thing or for any part of it, it is called synecdoche.
Suppose someone says - "All Hands on Deck."
Here 'hands' mean the whole people, not just hands. That is, they are expressing full from the part.
Examples from English literature:
Example from Samuel Coleridge’s Poem "The Rime of the ancient Mariner":
"The western wave was all aflame."
Here the meaning of the entire sea surface is extracted from the "wave".
✅ (iii) Hypallage
Definition: When the adjective of a word must actually be applied to another word, but it is placed in another place, it is called Hypallage. That is, the quality of the virtue is swapped between the words.
Suppose someone says - "Restless night."
Actually the night is not restless, a person is restless. The adjective "restless" should have been applied to the man, but the night was imposed.
Examples from English literature:
Example from John Keats's Poem "Ode to a Nightingale":
"A Drowsy Numbness Pains My Sense"
Actually "Sense" is not Drowsy, but a man. The wrong place is used for the Adjective "Drowsy" Sense.
✅ (iv) Allusion
Definition: When a poem, story, or drama is mentioned a slightly mention of a famous person, event, or book, it is called Allusion. The author hopes that the reader will recognize him.
Allusion means mentioning a famous story, book, or event in gestures, such as - "He met his Waterloo." It means that someone accepted defeat as Napoleon did in Waterloo.
Example from T. S. Eliot's poem "The waste land":
"April is the Cruellest Month…"
This is the allusion of the starting Lines of Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales", where April is called the month of happiness. Eliot says just opposite to it.
✅ (v) Personification
Definition: When inanimate things or abstract ideas (eg - love, death, nature) are given qualities or activities like humans.
Example:
"Because I could not stop for death - He Kindly Stopped for Me." - Emily Dickinson
Here, Death is shown like a human being.
Personification is also based on association because the inanimate thing has been linked to humans.
✅ (vi) Apostrophe
Definition: When the writer addresses a lifeless thing, a dead person, or an absent person.
Example (English Literature):
"O Death, where is thy sting?" - John Donne
Here, Death is being talked as if he is present in front.
Apostrophe is also considered an association fit because it addresses lifeless or absent things.
✅ (vii) Antonomasia
Definition: When a person's name is changed from his famous feature.
Example (English Literature):
Calling Shakespeare "The bard."
"The Bard", here, means Shakespeare, but did not take the name but said the word of his identity.
N.B: Bard means: poet or singer. In the Middle ages people used to call Bard to those who used to tell stories by singing a song or narrating poetry. To call Shakespeare a bard means - he is a great poet and playwright.
So, Antonomasia is also based on association because the person is related to the name of his identity or specialty.
✅ (viii) Euphemism
Definition: Using soft words instead of rigid or unpleasant words.
Example (English Literature):
"He Passed Away" Instead of "He Died."
This is also the association figure because the real thing is linked to another word that can hear better.
✅ (ix) Irony
Definition: When something is said but the real meaning is the opposite.
Example (English Literature):
In Shakespeare’s "Julius Caesar," Antony Says:
"Brutus is an honorable man."
Here, Antony actually wants to call Brutus a fraud.
Irony is also considered like association because here the words do not directly mean hidden.
👉 Figures of Association: Comparison
| Figure | Simple Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Metonymy | taking name from relation | "The pen is mightier than the sword." (Bulwer-Lytton) |
| Synecdoche | part to whole or whole to part | "The western wave was all aflame." (Coleridge) |
| Hypallage | swapping the properties of words | "a drowsy numbness pains my sense." (Keats) |
| Allusion | allusion to something famous | "April is the cruellest month…" (Eliot) |
| Personification | Attributing human-like qualities to inanimate objects or ideas | "Because I could not stop for Death – He kindly stopped for me." – Emily Dickinson |
| Apostrophe | Talking to an inanimate object, a dead person, or someone who is absent | "O Death, where is thy sting?" – John Donne |
| Antonomasia | Changing a person's name to reflect his or her identity or fame | Calling Shakespeare "The Bard" (Keats) |
| Euphemism | Use soft words instead of harsh words | "He passed away" instead of "He died." |
| Irony | saying something and actually meaning the opposite | "Brutus is an honourable man." – Shakespeare (Julius Caesar) |